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'''Macintosh II''' is a personal computer designed, manufactured, and sold by [[Apple Inc.|Apple Computer]] from March 1987 to January 1990. As the first modular Macintosh computer, it marked a significant departure from the original all-in-one design philosophy that had defined the Macintosh line since its inception in 1984. The Macintosh II represented Apple's entry into the high-end workstation market and was the company's first Macintosh to support color graphics, expansion slots, and a separate monitor.<ref>Carlton, Jim (1997). ''Apple: The Inside Story of Intrigue, Egomania, and Business Blunders''. New York: Random House. ISBN 0-8129-2851-2.</ref>
'''Macintosh II''' is a personal computer designed, manufactured, and sold by Apple Computer from March 1987 to January 1990. As the first modular Macintosh computer, it marked a significant departure from the original all-in-one design philosophy that had defined the Macintosh line since its inception in 1984. The Macintosh II represented Apple's entry into the high-end workstation market and was the company's first Macintosh to support color graphics, expansion slots, and a separate monitor.<ref>Carlton, Jim (1997). ''Apple: The Inside Story of Intrigue, Egomania, and Business Blunders''. New York: Random House. ISBN 0-8129-2851-2.</ref>


Developed under the codename "Little Big Mac" and later "Milwaukee," the Macintosh II was conceived as a response to criticism that the original Macintosh was a closed system with limited expandability. The project began in 1985 under the direction of [[Jean-Louis Gassée]], who had recently been appointed as Apple's head of product development. The machine was designed to appeal to business users, creative professionals, and scientific researchers who required more power and flexibility than the compact Macintosh models could provide.<ref>Moritz, Michael (2009). ''Return to the Little Kingdom: Steve Jobs and the Creation of Apple''. Overlook Press. ISBN 978-1-59020-281-8.</ref>
Developed under the codename "Little Big Mac" and later "Milwaukee," the Macintosh II was conceived as a response to criticism that the original Macintosh was a closed system with limited expandability. The project began in 1985 under the direction of Jean-Louis Gassée, who had recently been appointed as Apple's head of product development. The machine was designed to appeal to business users, creative professionals, and scientific researchers who required more power and flexibility than the compact Macintosh models could provide.<ref>Moritz, Michael (2009). ''Return to the Little Kingdom: Steve Jobs and the Creation of Apple''. Overlook Press. ISBN 978-1-59020-281-8.</ref>


The Macintosh II launched on March 2, 1987, at a retail price of $5,498 for the base configuration, which included 1 MB of RAM and no hard drive. A more typical configuration with 2 MB of RAM, a 40 MB hard drive, and a color monitor could cost upwards of $10,000, positioning it as a premium workstation rather than a consumer computer. Despite its high price, the Macintosh II was well-received by its target market and helped establish Apple as a serious competitor in the professional computing space.<ref>Kahaner, Larry (1989). ''On the Line: The Men of MCI Who Took On AT&T, Risked Everything, and Won''. Warner Books. ISBN 0-446-51476-2.</ref>
The Macintosh II launched on March 2, 1987, at a retail price of $5,498 for the base configuration, which included 1 MB of RAM and no hard drive. A more typical configuration with 2 MB of RAM, a 40 MB hard drive, and a color monitor could cost upwards of $10,000, positioning it as a premium workstation rather than a consumer computer. Despite its high price, the Macintosh II was well-received by its target market and helped establish Apple as a serious competitor in the professional computing space.<ref>Kahaner, Larry (1989). ''On the Line: The Men of MCI Who Took On AT&T, Risked Everything, and Won''. Warner Books. ISBN 0-446-51476-2.</ref>
Line 11: Line 11:
=== Processor and Architecture ===
=== Processor and Architecture ===


The Macintosh II was powered by a [[Motorola 68020]] microprocessor running at 16 MHz, making it significantly faster than the 8 MHz [[Motorola 68000]] used in earlier Macintosh models. The 68020 was a true 32-bit processor with 32-bit data and address buses, allowing it to directly address up to 4 GB of memory—though the Macintosh II's architecture limited this to 128 MB in practice. The processor featured an on-chip instruction cache of 256 bytes, which helped improve performance by reducing memory access times.<ref>Motorola Inc. (1985). ''MC68020 32-Bit Microprocessor User's Manual''. Prentice Hall. ISBN 0-13-566878-6.</ref>
The Macintosh II was powered by a Motorola 68020 microprocessor running at 16 MHz, making it significantly faster than the 8 MHz Motorola 68000 used in earlier Macintosh models. The 68020 was a true 32-bit processor with 32-bit data and address buses, allowing it to directly address up to 4 GB of memory—though the Macintosh II's architecture limited this to 128 MB in practice. The processor featured an on-chip instruction cache of 256 bytes, which helped improve performance by reducing memory access times.<ref>Motorola Inc. (1985). ''MC68020 32-Bit Microprocessor User's Manual''. Prentice Hall. ISBN 0-13-566878-6.</ref>


The system also included a [[Motorola 68881]] floating-point unit (FPU) running at the same 16 MHz clock speed. The 68881 provided hardware acceleration for floating-point arithmetic operations, making the Macintosh II particularly well-suited for scientific computing, 3D graphics, and other mathematically intensive applications. The FPU supported both single-precision (32-bit) and double-precision (64-bit) floating-point operations, as well as extended-precision (80-bit) calculations.<ref>Apple Computer (1987). ''Macintosh II Developer Note''. Apple Technical Publications.</ref>
The system also included a Motorola 68881 floating-point unit (FPU) running at the same 16 MHz clock speed. The 68881 provided hardware acceleration for floating-point arithmetic operations, making the Macintosh II particularly well-suited for scientific computing, 3D graphics, and other mathematically intensive applications. The FPU supported both single-precision (32-bit) and double-precision (64-bit) floating-point operations, as well as extended-precision (80-bit) calculations.<ref>Apple Computer (1987). ''Macintosh II Developer Note''. Apple Technical Publications.</ref>


=== Memory Configuration ===
=== Memory Configuration ===


The Macintosh II featured a sophisticated memory architecture that was revolutionary for personal computers of its era. The base configuration included 1 MB of RAM, expandable to 8 MB using 120ns 30-pin [[SIMM]]s (Single Inline Memory Modules). The system had eight SIMM slots arranged in two banks of four, with each bank requiring matched SIMMs. Initially, the system supported 256 KB and 1 MB SIMMs, allowing configurations of 1, 2, 4, 5, or 8 MB.<ref>Apple Computer (1988). ''Guide to the Macintosh Family Hardware''. Addison-Wesley. ISBN 0-201-19255-1.</ref>
The Macintosh II featured a sophisticated memory architecture that was revolutionary for personal computers of its era. The base configuration included 1 MB of RAM, expandable to 8 MB using 120ns 30-pin SIMMs (Single Inline Memory Modules). The system had eight SIMM slots arranged in two banks of four, with each bank requiring matched SIMMs. Initially, the system supported 256 KB and 1 MB SIMMs, allowing configurations of 1, 2, 4, 5, or 8 MB.<ref>Apple Computer (1988). ''Guide to the Macintosh Family Hardware''. Addison-Wesley. ISBN 0-201-19255-1.</ref>


In 1989, Apple released a ROM update (known as the "32-bit clean" ROM) that, combined with [[System 7]] and the [[MODE32]] software extension, allowed the Macintosh II to address up to 68 MB of RAM using 4 MB SIMMs. Later third-party modifications pushed this limit to 128 MB using 16 MB SIMMs, though such configurations were rare and expensive. The memory controller supported both page mode and static column access modes, optimizing memory performance based on access patterns.
In 1989, Apple released a ROM update (known as the "32-bit clean" ROM) that, combined with [[System 7]] and the [[MODE32]] software extension, allowed the Macintosh II to address up to 68 MB of RAM using 4 MB SIMMs. Later third-party modifications pushed this limit to 128 MB using 16 MB SIMMs, though such configurations were rare and expensive. The memory controller supported both page mode and static column access modes, optimizing memory performance based on access patterns.
Line 23: Line 23:
=== Storage Systems ===
=== Storage Systems ===


The Macintosh II was the first Macintosh to feature an internal hard drive as a standard option. The system could accommodate one 3.5-inch half-height hard drive internally, with capacities ranging from 20 MB to 80 MB using the [[SCSI]] (Small Computer System Interface) protocol. The most common configuration included a 40 MB hard drive manufactured by [[Quantum Corporation]] or [[Seagate Technology]].<ref>Field, Gary (1987). "Macintosh II: Apple's Open Mac". ''MacUser''. Vol. 3, No. 5. pp. 81-89.</ref>
The Macintosh II was the first Macintosh to feature an internal hard drive as a standard option. The system could accommodate one 3.5-inch half-height hard drive internally, with capacities ranging from 20 MB to 80 MB using the SCSI (Small Computer System Interface) protocol. The most common configuration included a 40 MB hard drive manufactured by Quantum Corporation or Seagate Technology.<ref>Field, Gary (1987). "Macintosh II: Apple's Open Mac". ''MacUser''. Vol. 3, No. 5. pp. 81-89.</ref>


The system also included a single 1.44 MB [[SuperDrive]] floppy disk drive, which could read and write both Macintosh 400K/800K disks and [[MS-DOS]]/[[PC compatible]] 720K/1.44 MB disks. This cross-platform compatibility was achieved through the [[Apple File Exchange]] utility and represented Apple's acknowledgment of the need for data interchange with the dominant PC platform.
The system also included a single 1.44 MB [[SuperDrive]] floppy disk drive, which could read and write both Macintosh 400K/800K disks and MS-DOS/PC compatible 720K/1.44 MB disks. This cross-platform compatibility was achieved through the [[Apple File Exchange]] utility and represented Apple's acknowledgment of the need for data interchange with the dominant PC platform.


=== Expansion Architecture ===
=== Expansion Architecture ===


One of the defining features of the Macintosh II was its six [[NuBus]] expansion slots, which provided a standardized interface for add-on cards. NuBus was a 32-bit bus architecture originally developed at [[MIT]] and refined by [[Texas Instruments]]. It operated at 10 MHz and provided a theoretical maximum bandwidth of 40 MB/s, though practical throughput was typically lower due to arbitration overhead and protocol requirements.<ref>Texas Instruments (1986). ''NuBus Specification''. IEEE 1196-1987.</ref>
One of the defining features of the Macintosh II was its six [[NuBus]] expansion slots, which provided a standardized interface for add-on cards. NuBus was a 32-bit bus architecture originally developed at MIT and refined by Texas Instruments. It operated at 10 MHz and provided a theoretical maximum bandwidth of 40 MB/s, though practical throughput was typically lower due to arbitration overhead and protocol requirements.<ref>Texas Instruments (1986). ''NuBus Specification''. IEEE 1196-1987.</ref>


The NuBus architecture was self-configuring, meaning that expansion cards could identify themselves to the system and automatically configure their resources without user intervention—a feature that predated the [[Plug and Play]] standard on PCs by several years. Each slot provided access to the full 32-bit address space and supported bus mastering, allowing expansion cards to directly access system memory without CPU intervention.
The NuBus architecture was self-configuring, meaning that expansion cards could identify themselves to the system and automatically configure their resources without user intervention—a feature that predated the Plug and Play standard on PCs by several years. Each slot provided access to the full 32-bit address space and supported bus mastering, allowing expansion cards to directly access system memory without CPU intervention.


=== Video Capabilities ===
=== Video Capabilities ===
Line 48: Line 48:


* Two [[Apple Desktop Bus]] (ADB) ports for keyboard, mouse, and other input devices
* Two [[Apple Desktop Bus]] (ADB) ports for keyboard, mouse, and other input devices
* Two [[RS-422]] serial ports (printer and modem) supporting data rates up to 230.4 Kbps
* Two RS-422 serial ports (printer and modem) supporting data rates up to 230.4 Kbps
* One [[SCSI]] port (DB-25 connector) supporting up to seven external devices
* One SCSI port (DB-25 connector) supporting up to seven external devices
* One external floppy drive port (DB-19 connector)
* One external floppy drive port (DB-19 connector)
* Stereo sound output (3.5mm mini-jack)
* Stereo sound output (3.5mm mini-jack)
Line 67: Line 67:


=== Motorola 68020 Processor ===
=== Motorola 68020 Processor ===
The Macintosh II was powered by the [[Motorola 68020]] microprocessor, marking a significant advancement from the [[Motorola 68000]] used in earlier Macintosh models. The 68020 operated at a clock speed of 15.6672 MHz, providing approximately four times the processing power of the original Macintosh.<ref>{{cite book |last=Pogue |first=David |title=Macworld Mac Secrets |year=1993 |publisher=IDG Books |isbn=1-56884-025-X |pages=654-655}}</ref>
The Macintosh II was powered by the Motorola 68020 microprocessor, marking a significant advancement from the Motorola 68000 used in earlier Macintosh models. The 68020 operated at a clock speed of 15.6672 MHz, providing approximately four times the processing power of the original Macintosh.<ref>{{cite book |last=Pogue |first=David |title=Macworld Mac Secrets |year=1993 |publisher=IDG Books |isbn=1-56884-025-X |pages=654-655}}</ref>


The 68020 processor featured a full 32-bit architecture with 32-bit data and address buses, enabling the Macintosh II to directly address up to 4 gigabytes of memory—though practical limitations restricted actual memory capacity. The processor included 256 bytes of on-chip instruction cache, which significantly improved performance by reducing memory access cycles for frequently used instructions.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Motorola's 68020 Microprocessor |journal=IEEE Micro |volume=4 |issue=2 |year=1984 |pages=101-108}}</ref>
The 68020 processor featured a full 32-bit architecture with 32-bit data and address buses, enabling the Macintosh II to directly address up to 4 gigabytes of memory—though practical limitations restricted actual memory capacity. The processor included 256 bytes of on-chip instruction cache, which significantly improved performance by reducing memory access cycles for frequently used instructions.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Motorola's 68020 Microprocessor |journal=IEEE Micro |volume=4 |issue=2 |year=1984 |pages=101-108}}</ref>


=== Floating-Point Coprocessor ===
=== Floating-Point Coprocessor ===
The Macintosh II included a dedicated [[Motorola 68881]] floating-point unit (FPU) as standard equipment, operating at the same 15.6672 MHz clock speed as the main processor. This mathematical coprocessor handled complex floating-point calculations in hardware, providing dramatic performance improvements for scientific, engineering, and graphics applications. The 68881 supported the IEEE 754 floating-point standard and could execute operations on single-precision (32-bit) and double-precision (64-bit) floating-point numbers.<ref>{{cite book |last=Apple Computer |title=Macintosh II Developer Note |year=1987 |publisher=Apple Computer, Inc. |pages=2-3}}</ref>
The Macintosh II included a dedicated Motorola 68881 floating-point unit (FPU) as standard equipment, operating at the same 15.6672 MHz clock speed as the main processor. This mathematical coprocessor handled complex floating-point calculations in hardware, providing dramatic performance improvements for scientific, engineering, and graphics applications. The 68881 supported the IEEE 754 floating-point standard and could execute operations on single-precision (32-bit) and double-precision (64-bit) floating-point numbers.<ref>{{cite book |last=Apple Computer |title=Macintosh II Developer Note |year=1987 |publisher=Apple Computer, Inc. |pages=2-3}}</ref>


=== Memory Architecture ===
=== Memory Architecture ===
The Macintosh II introduced a revolutionary memory architecture for the Macintosh line, supporting up to 128 MB of RAM through eight 30-pin [[SIMM]] (Single Inline Memory Module) slots. The system shipped with 1 MB of RAM standard, expandable in 256 KB, 1 MB, or 4 MB SIMM configurations. The memory controller supported 120ns RAM, though 100ns modules were recommended for optimal performance.<ref>{{cite manual |title=Macintosh II Owner's Guide |year=1987 |publisher=Apple Computer, Inc. |pages=145-150}}</ref>
The Macintosh II introduced a revolutionary memory architecture for the Macintosh line, supporting up to 128 MB of RAM through eight 30-pin SIMM (Single Inline Memory Module) slots. The system shipped with 1 MB of RAM standard, expandable in 256 KB, 1 MB, or 4 MB SIMM configurations. The memory controller supported 120ns RAM, though 100ns modules were recommended for optimal performance.<ref>{{cite manual |title=Macintosh II Owner's Guide |year=1987 |publisher=Apple Computer, Inc. |pages=145-150}}</ref>


The memory subsystem utilized a 32-bit data path, allowing the processor to access four bytes simultaneously. Memory was organized in four banks of two SIMMs each, with specific rules governing module installation:
The memory subsystem utilized a 32-bit data path, allowing the processor to access four bytes simultaneously. Memory was organized in four banks of two SIMMs each, with specific rules governing module installation:
Line 88: Line 88:


=== Internal Hard Drive Support ===
=== Internal Hard Drive Support ===
The Macintosh II was the first Macintosh to include an internal hard drive bay as standard, accommodating a 5.25-inch full-height or two 3.5-inch half-height [[SCSI]] hard drives. Apple offered several configurations, including 40 MB and 80 MB options manufactured by [[Quantum Corporation]] and [[CDC]]. The internal drive bay included mounting brackets, power connections, and SCSI cabling integrated into the chassis design.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Macintosh II: Apple's Open Mac |journal=MacWorld |date=April 1987 |pages=122-125}}</ref>
The Macintosh II was the first Macintosh to include an internal hard drive bay as standard, accommodating a 5.25-inch full-height or two 3.5-inch half-height SCSI hard drives. Apple offered several configurations, including 40 MB and 80 MB options manufactured by Quantum Corporation and CDC. The internal drive bay included mounting brackets, power connections, and SCSI cabling integrated into the chassis design.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Macintosh II: Apple's Open Mac |journal=MacWorld |date=April 1987 |pages=122-125}}</ref>


=== SCSI Implementation ===
=== SCSI Implementation ===
The Macintosh II featured Apple's implementation of the [[Small Computer System Interface]] (SCSI) standard, based on the [[NCR 5380]] SCSI controller chip. This provided an 8-bit parallel interface capable of 5 MB/second theoretical transfer rates, though actual throughput typically ranged from 1-2 MB/second due to processor overhead and driver limitations.<ref>{{cite book |last=Apple Computer |title=Guide to Macintosh Family Hardware |year=1990 |publisher=Addison-Wesley |isbn=0-201-52405-8 |pages=234-240}}</ref>
The Macintosh II featured Apple's implementation of the Small Computer System Interface (SCSI) standard, based on the NCR 5380 SCSI controller chip. This provided an 8-bit parallel interface capable of 5 MB/second theoretical transfer rates, though actual throughput typically ranged from 1-2 MB/second due to processor overhead and driver limitations.<ref>{{cite book |last=Apple Computer |title=Guide to Macintosh Family Hardware |year=1990 |publisher=Addison-Wesley |isbn=0-201-52405-8 |pages=234-240}}</ref>


The SCSI implementation supported:
The SCSI implementation supported:
Line 110: Line 110:
=== External Storage Options ===
=== External Storage Options ===
The external SCSI port supported a wide variety of storage devices, including:
The external SCSI port supported a wide variety of storage devices, including:
* External hard drives from manufacturers like [[La Cie]], [[MicroNet]], and [[Jasmine]]
* External hard drives from manufacturers like La Cie, MicroNet, and Jasmine
* Removable media drives such as [[SyQuest]] cartridge drives
* Removable media drives such as [[SyQuest]] cartridge drives
* [[Magneto-optical]] drives for archival storage
* [[Magneto-optical]] drives for archival storage

Revision as of 23:51, 6 July 2025

Macintosh II is a personal computer designed, manufactured, and sold by Apple Computer from March 1987 to January 1990. As the first modular Macintosh computer, it marked a significant departure from the original all-in-one design philosophy that had defined the Macintosh line since its inception in 1984. The Macintosh II represented Apple's entry into the high-end workstation market and was the company's first Macintosh to support color graphics, expansion slots, and a separate monitor.[1]

Developed under the codename "Little Big Mac" and later "Milwaukee," the Macintosh II was conceived as a response to criticism that the original Macintosh was a closed system with limited expandability. The project began in 1985 under the direction of Jean-Louis Gassée, who had recently been appointed as Apple's head of product development. The machine was designed to appeal to business users, creative professionals, and scientific researchers who required more power and flexibility than the compact Macintosh models could provide.[2]

The Macintosh II launched on March 2, 1987, at a retail price of $5,498 for the base configuration, which included 1 MB of RAM and no hard drive. A more typical configuration with 2 MB of RAM, a 40 MB hard drive, and a color monitor could cost upwards of $10,000, positioning it as a premium workstation rather than a consumer computer. Despite its high price, the Macintosh II was well-received by its target market and helped establish Apple as a serious competitor in the professional computing space.[3]

The success of the Macintosh II validated Apple's decision to embrace modularity and expandability, leading to a family of related models including the Macintosh IIx, Macintosh IIcx, Macintosh IIci, and Macintosh IIfx. The original Macintosh II remained in production for nearly three years, during which time it received several minor revisions and updates. It was officially discontinued in January 1990, replaced by the more powerful Macintosh IIx and the more compact Macintosh IIcx.

Technical Specifications

Processor and Architecture

The Macintosh II was powered by a Motorola 68020 microprocessor running at 16 MHz, making it significantly faster than the 8 MHz Motorola 68000 used in earlier Macintosh models. The 68020 was a true 32-bit processor with 32-bit data and address buses, allowing it to directly address up to 4 GB of memory—though the Macintosh II's architecture limited this to 128 MB in practice. The processor featured an on-chip instruction cache of 256 bytes, which helped improve performance by reducing memory access times.[4]

The system also included a Motorola 68881 floating-point unit (FPU) running at the same 16 MHz clock speed. The 68881 provided hardware acceleration for floating-point arithmetic operations, making the Macintosh II particularly well-suited for scientific computing, 3D graphics, and other mathematically intensive applications. The FPU supported both single-precision (32-bit) and double-precision (64-bit) floating-point operations, as well as extended-precision (80-bit) calculations.[5]

Memory Configuration

The Macintosh II featured a sophisticated memory architecture that was revolutionary for personal computers of its era. The base configuration included 1 MB of RAM, expandable to 8 MB using 120ns 30-pin SIMMs (Single Inline Memory Modules). The system had eight SIMM slots arranged in two banks of four, with each bank requiring matched SIMMs. Initially, the system supported 256 KB and 1 MB SIMMs, allowing configurations of 1, 2, 4, 5, or 8 MB.[6]

In 1989, Apple released a ROM update (known as the "32-bit clean" ROM) that, combined with System 7 and the MODE32 software extension, allowed the Macintosh II to address up to 68 MB of RAM using 4 MB SIMMs. Later third-party modifications pushed this limit to 128 MB using 16 MB SIMMs, though such configurations were rare and expensive. The memory controller supported both page mode and static column access modes, optimizing memory performance based on access patterns.

Storage Systems

The Macintosh II was the first Macintosh to feature an internal hard drive as a standard option. The system could accommodate one 3.5-inch half-height hard drive internally, with capacities ranging from 20 MB to 80 MB using the SCSI (Small Computer System Interface) protocol. The most common configuration included a 40 MB hard drive manufactured by Quantum Corporation or Seagate Technology.[7]

The system also included a single 1.44 MB SuperDrive floppy disk drive, which could read and write both Macintosh 400K/800K disks and MS-DOS/PC compatible 720K/1.44 MB disks. This cross-platform compatibility was achieved through the Apple File Exchange utility and represented Apple's acknowledgment of the need for data interchange with the dominant PC platform.

Expansion Architecture

One of the defining features of the Macintosh II was its six NuBus expansion slots, which provided a standardized interface for add-on cards. NuBus was a 32-bit bus architecture originally developed at MIT and refined by Texas Instruments. It operated at 10 MHz and provided a theoretical maximum bandwidth of 40 MB/s, though practical throughput was typically lower due to arbitration overhead and protocol requirements.[8]

The NuBus architecture was self-configuring, meaning that expansion cards could identify themselves to the system and automatically configure their resources without user intervention—a feature that predated the Plug and Play standard on PCs by several years. Each slot provided access to the full 32-bit address space and supported bus mastering, allowing expansion cards to directly access system memory without CPU intervention.

Video Capabilities

Unlike previous Macintosh models with built-in displays, the Macintosh II required a separate video card and monitor. Apple offered several video card options, with the most popular being the Apple High-Resolution Video Card (also known as the Macintosh II Video Card). This card supported multiple resolution modes:

  • 640×480 pixels at 1, 2, 4, or 8 bits per pixel (2 to 256 colors)
  • 560×384 pixels at 8 bits per pixel (256 colors)
  • 512×384 pixels at 1, 2, 4, 8, or 24 bits per pixel (2 to 16.7 million colors)

The video card included 512 KB of dedicated video RAM, expandable to 1 MB for 24-bit color support at lower resolutions. The card used a proprietary DB-15 connector that carried both analog RGB signals and digital sync signals, supporting monitors with refresh rates from 60 to 75 Hz.[9]

Input/Output Interfaces

The Macintosh II provided a comprehensive array of I/O ports:

  • Two Apple Desktop Bus (ADB) ports for keyboard, mouse, and other input devices
  • Two RS-422 serial ports (printer and modem) supporting data rates up to 230.4 Kbps
  • One SCSI port (DB-25 connector) supporting up to seven external devices
  • One external floppy drive port (DB-19 connector)
  • Stereo sound output (3.5mm mini-jack)
  • Built-in LocalTalk networking support through the printer port

The system's I/O controller was based on custom Apple Silicon chips, including the VIA (Versatile Interface Adapter) chips that managed ADB, sound, and other system functions.[10]

Key Features

Color Graphics Support

The Macintosh II's support for color graphics represented a fundamental shift in Apple's approach to visual computing. Previous Macintosh models had been limited to black-and-white displays, which, while adequate for text processing and basic graphics, limited the platform's appeal for professional graphics work. The Macintosh II's color capabilities opened new markets in desktop publishing, image processing, and multimedia production.

The system's Color QuickDraw graphics engine, an enhanced version of the original QuickDraw, provided sophisticated color management capabilities. Color QuickDraw supported multiple color spaces including RGB, HSL, and HS

Processor & Memory

Motorola 68020 Processor

The Macintosh II was powered by the Motorola 68020 microprocessor, marking a significant advancement from the Motorola 68000 used in earlier Macintosh models. The 68020 operated at a clock speed of 15.6672 MHz, providing approximately four times the processing power of the original Macintosh.[11]

The 68020 processor featured a full 32-bit architecture with 32-bit data and address buses, enabling the Macintosh II to directly address up to 4 gigabytes of memory—though practical limitations restricted actual memory capacity. The processor included 256 bytes of on-chip instruction cache, which significantly improved performance by reducing memory access cycles for frequently used instructions.[12]

Floating-Point Coprocessor

The Macintosh II included a dedicated Motorola 68881 floating-point unit (FPU) as standard equipment, operating at the same 15.6672 MHz clock speed as the main processor. This mathematical coprocessor handled complex floating-point calculations in hardware, providing dramatic performance improvements for scientific, engineering, and graphics applications. The 68881 supported the IEEE 754 floating-point standard and could execute operations on single-precision (32-bit) and double-precision (64-bit) floating-point numbers.[13]

Memory Architecture

The Macintosh II introduced a revolutionary memory architecture for the Macintosh line, supporting up to 128 MB of RAM through eight 30-pin SIMM (Single Inline Memory Module) slots. The system shipped with 1 MB of RAM standard, expandable in 256 KB, 1 MB, or 4 MB SIMM configurations. The memory controller supported 120ns RAM, though 100ns modules were recommended for optimal performance.[14]

The memory subsystem utilized a 32-bit data path, allowing the processor to access four bytes simultaneously. Memory was organized in four banks of two SIMMs each, with specific rules governing module installation:

  • SIMMs must be installed in pairs within each bank
  • Both SIMMs in a bank must be of identical capacity
  • Banks must be filled starting from Bank A (slots 1 and 2)

ROM Architecture

The Macintosh II contained 256 KB of ROM (Read-Only Memory), double the capacity of earlier Macintosh models. This ROM contained the core operating system routines, including the Macintosh Toolbox, low-level hardware drivers, and boot code. The ROM was implemented using two 128 KB chips providing a 32-bit data path to match the processor's capabilities.[15]

Storage Systems

Internal Hard Drive Support

The Macintosh II was the first Macintosh to include an internal hard drive bay as standard, accommodating a 5.25-inch full-height or two 3.5-inch half-height SCSI hard drives. Apple offered several configurations, including 40 MB and 80 MB options manufactured by Quantum Corporation and CDC. The internal drive bay included mounting brackets, power connections, and SCSI cabling integrated into the chassis design.[16]

SCSI Implementation

The Macintosh II featured Apple's implementation of the Small Computer System Interface (SCSI) standard, based on the NCR 5380 SCSI controller chip. This provided an 8-bit parallel interface capable of 5 MB/second theoretical transfer rates, though actual throughput typically ranged from 1-2 MB/second due to processor overhead and driver limitations.[17]

The SCSI implementation supported:

  • Up to seven devices on the SCSI chain (IDs 0-6, with 7 reserved for the Mac)
  • Both internal and external SCSI connections
  • Asynchronous data transfers
  • Disconnect/reconnect capability for improved multitasking

Floppy Disk System

The Macintosh II included a single 3.5-inch floppy disk drive as standard equipment, using Apple's SuperDrive technology. This drive could read and write:

  • 800 KB double-sided Macintosh disks
  • 400 KB single-sided Macintosh disks
  • 1.44 MB high-density disks (with appropriate system software)
  • 720 KB MS-DOS formatted disks (with Apple File Exchange software)

The floppy disk controller was based on the IWM (Integrated Woz Machine) chip, providing variable-speed motor control and sophisticated data encoding schemes. A second internal floppy drive could be installed in an available drive bay.[18]

External Storage Options

The external SCSI port supported a wide variety of storage devices, including:

  • External hard drives from manufacturers like La Cie, MicroNet, and Jasmine
  • Removable media drives such as SyQuest cartridge drives
  • Magneto-optical drives for archival storage
  • Tape backup systems for data protection
  • CD-ROM drives (though these required additional driver software)

Expansion & Connectivity

NuBus Architecture

The Macintosh II introduced NuBus expansion slots to the Macintosh platform, providing six full-length slots for expansion cards. NuBus was a 32-bit, processor-independent expansion bus originally developed at MIT and refined by Texas Instruments. Apple's implementation operated at 10 MHz, providing a theoretical maximum bandwidth of 40 MB/second, though typical sustained rates were closer to 10-20 MB/second.[19]

Key NuBus features included:

  • Automatic configuration with no DIP switches or jumpers
  • Geographical addressing (each slot had a unique address range)
  • Multi-master capability allowing cards to control the bus
  • Fair arbitration ensuring equal access for all devices
  • 32-bit data path with multiplexed address/data lines

Video Expansion

Unlike previous Macintosh models with built-in displays, the Macintosh II required a separate video card. Apple offered several options:

  • Macintosh II Video Card: 4-bit card supporting 640×480 resolution with 16 colors/grays
  • Macintosh II High-Resolution Video Card: 8-bit card supporting multiple resolutions up to 1024×768
  • Apple Two-Page Monochrome Card: Designed for the Apple Two-Page Display (1152×870 pixels)

Third-party manufacturers quickly developed alternative video solutions, including cards from Radius, SuperMac, and RasterOps that offered enhanced color depth, multiple monitor support, and graphics acceleration.[20]

Network Connectivity

The Macintosh II included built-in LocalTalk networking through two 8-pin mini-DIN connectors, supporting Apple's 230.4 kbit/s AppleTalk protocol. The dual ports allowed daisy-chaining of devices without requiring a separate hub. For higher-performance networking, NuBus Ethernet cards were available from Apple and third parties, providing 10 Mbit/s connectivity.[21]

Serial and Peripheral Ports

The Macintosh II provided extensive connectivity through multiple ports:

Serial Ports: Two RS-422 serial ports (printer and modem) using 8-pin mini-DIN connectors. These ports supported:

  • Data rates up to 230.4 kbit/s (or 920 kbit/s with special drivers)
  • Hardware handshaking
  • AppleTalk networking
  • Connection to printers, modems, and other serial devices

Apple Desktop Bus (ADB): Two Apple Desktop Bus ports for connecting input devices. ADB supported:

  • Daisy-chaining up to 16 devices
  • Hot-swapping of keyboards, mice, and other peripherals
  • Power delivery to low-power devices
  • Bidirectional communication at 4.5 kbit/s

Sound Ports: Stereo sound output through two RCA jacks

Operating System

The Macintosh II was designed from the ground up to run System Software 4.1, marking a significant departure from previous Macintosh models. This operating system version was specifically engineered to support the II's revolutionary 32-bit architecture and color graphics capabilities, features that were unprecedented in the Macintosh line.[22]

System Software Evolution

The Macintosh II shipped with System Software 4.1 and Finder 5.5, which introduced crucial features for managing the computer's expanded capabilities. The operating system included native support for Color QuickDraw, enabling the display of up to 256 colors simultaneously from a palette of 16.7 million colors. This was a dramatic advancement from the monochrome displays of earlier Macintosh models.[23]

The operating system's memory management was significantly enhanced to handle the II's expandable RAM, which could reach up to 128 MB with third-party upgrades—an enormous amount for 1987. System Software 4.1 introduced improved virtual memory support through the Memory Manager, though full virtual memory implementation would not arrive until System 7.[24]

MultiFinder

A groundbreaking addition to the Macintosh II's operating system was MultiFinder, introduced with System Software 5.0 in October 1987. This optional extension allowed users to run multiple applications simultaneously, transforming the Macintosh from a single-tasking to a cooperative multitasking environment. MultiFinder allocated memory partitions to each running application and provided a switcher mechanism in the upper-right corner of the screen.[25]

The implementation of MultiFinder on the Macintosh II was particularly effective due to the machine's generous memory capacity and faster processor. Users could seamlessly switch between applications like Microsoft Word, Adobe Illustrator, and FileMaker without closing and reopening programs, dramatically improving workflow efficiency.

File System Enhancements

The Macintosh II's operating system included support for the Hierarchical File System (HFS), which had been introduced with the Macintosh Plus. However, the II's implementation included optimizations for handling larger hard drives, which were becoming increasingly common. The system could manage volumes up to 2 GB, though most users operated with drives between 40 MB and 80 MB.[26]

Bundled Software

The Macintosh II came with a carefully curated selection of bundled software that showcased the machine's capabilities while providing essential functionality for users. Unlike modern computers that often include extensive software suites, the II's bundled software was minimal but purposeful.

System Utilities

The core bundled utilities included:

  • Apple File Exchange - This utility enabled file transfer between Macintosh disks and MS-DOS formatted disks, crucial for business environments where PC compatibility was essential. It could translate file formats and handle character set conversions between platforms.[27]
  • Font/DA Mover - A critical utility for managing fonts and desk accessories in the pre-System 7 era. Users needed this tool to install new fonts or desk accessories into their System file, as drag-and-drop installation would not arrive until later system versions.
  • TeachText - A simple text editor that could display both text and PICT images. While basic, TeachText served as the default application for README files and became the standard for software documentation distribution.

HyperCard

Beginning in late 1987, Apple began bundling HyperCard with new Macintosh II systems. Created by Bill Atkinson, HyperCard was a revolutionary hypermedia system that combined a graphical programming environment with a database. On the Macintosh II, HyperCard could leverage the color capabilities through third-party extensions, though the base version remained monochrome.[28]

HyperCard's inclusion was strategic, as it enabled users to create custom applications without traditional programming knowledge. Many businesses used HyperCard to develop in-house databases, training materials, and presentation systems. The Macintosh II's processing power made it particularly well-suited for complex HyperCard stacks that would run slowly on lesser machines.

MacPaint and MacDraw

Early Macintosh II systems included copies of MacPaint and MacDraw, though these applications were not optimized for color. Apple included these applications to ensure users had immediate creative capabilities, even though both programs would soon be superseded by more advanced alternatives. The inclusion of these monochrome applications on a color-capable machine highlighted the software industry's transition period during 1987-1988.[29]

The Macintosh II's arrival catalyzed a revolution in professional software development. Its color capabilities, processing power, and expansion options attracted developers who had previously been constrained by the limitations of earlier Macintosh models.

Desktop Publishing

PageMaker 2.0 from Aldus Corporation became the definitive desktop publishing application for the Macintosh II. Released in late 1987, version 2.0 was specifically optimized for the II's capabilities, including support for color separations and improved memory management. Publishers could now create full-color layouts on-screen, though most final output remained black and white due to printing technology limitations.[30]

QuarkXPress 1.0, released in 1987, quickly became PageMaker's primary competitor. Though initially less polished than PageMaker, QuarkXPress offered superior typography controls and color management features that appealed to high-end publishing professionals. The Macintosh II's processing power was essential for QuarkXPress's demanding PostScript processing requirements.

Graphics and Design

Adobe Illustrator 88 transformed the Macintosh II into a professional illustration workstation. As the first version to support color, Illustrator 88 (version 1.7) leveraged the II's Color QuickDraw to provide real-time preview of Bézier curve illustrations in full color. The application's steep hardware requirements made the Macintosh II the minimum viable platform for professional work.[31]

Adobe Photoshop 1.0, released in February 1990, found its ideal platform in the Macintosh II. Though released three years after the II's introduction, Photoshop's development had been influenced by the II's capabilities. The application required a minimum of 2 MB RAM and strongly recommended 4 MB or more, specifications that aligned perfectly with typical Macintosh II configurations. Photoshop's revolutionary approach to digital image manipulation would have been impossible on earlier Macintosh models.[32]

PixelPaint by SuperMac Technology emerged as an early color painting program optimized for the Macintosh II. Released in 1987, it was one of the first applications to fully utilize the II's color capabilities, offering 24-bit color support when used with appropriate video cards. PixelPaint included advanced features like anti-aliasing, gradient fills, and multiple drawing tools that established conventions later adopted by other graphics applications.

Business Software

Microsoft Excel 2.2 became the spreadsheet of choice for Macint

Development History

The Macintosh II represented a fundamental shift in Apple Computer's product philosophy and marked the company's first serious attempt to compete in the high-end personal computer market. Development of the Macintosh II began in 1985 under the codename "Little Big Mac" and later "Milwaukee," reflecting its origins as a project to create a more expandable successor to the original Macintosh.[33]

Early Conception and Design Philosophy

The project emerged from growing criticism of the original Macintosh's closed architecture and limited expandability. Jean-Louis Gassée, who became Apple's head of product development in 1985, championed the concept of an "open Mac" that would appeal to business users and power users who demanded more flexibility.[34] This represented a significant departure from Steve Jobs' original vision of the Macintosh as a sealed, appliance-like computer.

The development team, led by Michael Dhuey and Brian Berkeley, faced the challenge of maintaining the Macintosh's ease of use while adding the expandability that professional users demanded. The team made several crucial decisions early in the development process:

  • Implementation of the NuBus expansion architecture, licensed from MIT
  • Support for color graphics, a first for the Macintosh line
  • Separation of the monitor from the main unit
  • Use of the Motorola 68020 processor for improved performance

Technical Innovations

The Macintosh II introduced several groundbreaking features that would influence Apple's product line for years to come. The implementation of 32-bit Color QuickDraw represented a massive engineering effort, requiring significant modifications to the Macintosh operating system and ROM.[35] The development team worked closely with Andy Hertzfeld and Bill Atkinson to ensure backward compatibility while enabling the new color capabilities.

The decision to use NuBus for expansion slots proved controversial within Apple. Some engineers favored the more common ISA bus used in IBM-compatible computers, but Gassée insisted on NuBus for its superior technical specifications and automatic configuration capabilities.[36]

Production Challenges

As the Macintosh II neared completion in late 1986, Apple faced significant production challenges. The complex motherboard design, with its six NuBus slots and separate processor direct slot, pushed the limits of printed circuit board manufacturing technology of the time. Initial production yields were low, contributing to the high retail price and limited availability at launch.[37]

Market Reception

The Macintosh II launched on March 2, 1987, at a retail price of $5,498 for the base configuration, making it one of the most expensive personal computers available at the time.[38] Despite the high price, initial market reception was overwhelmingly positive, particularly among creative professionals and technical users who had been waiting for a more powerful Macintosh.

Sales Performance

First-year sales exceeded Apple's projections, with approximately 50,000 units sold in 1987.[39] The Macintosh II's success helped reverse Apple's declining market share in the business sector and established the company as a serious competitor in the workstation market. Key factors contributing to its market success included:

  • Strong adoption in desktop publishing, where color capabilities provided a significant advantage
  • Enthusiasm from the scientific and engineering communities due to expandability
  • Support from third-party developers who quickly released NuBus expansion cards
  • Positive reviews from technology publications praising performance and flexibility

Competitive Landscape

The Macintosh II competed directly with high-end offerings from IBM, Compaq, and Sun Microsystems. While significantly more expensive than most IBM-compatible computers, the Macintosh II offered superior graphics capabilities and ease of use that justified the premium for many buyers.[40] The computer's position in the market was unique, straddling the line between personal computer and workstation.

Industry analysts noted that the Macintosh II's modular design and expansion capabilities addressed the primary criticisms of earlier Macintosh models. International Data Corporation reported that the Macintosh II helped Apple increase its market share in the business sector from 5.2% to 7.1% between 1987 and 1988.[41]

Critical Response

Technology journalists and reviewers praised the Macintosh II for its performance, expandability, and color capabilities. InfoWorld awarded it their Product of the Year award for 1987, citing its "revolutionary impact on personal computing."[42] Byte Magazine published an extensive review praising the computer's architecture but noting the high cost as a potential barrier to widespread adoption.

Common criticisms included:

  • High initial purchase price and expensive peripherals
  • Limited software that could take advantage of color capabilities at launch
  • Noise from the internal fan, unusual for Macintosh users accustomed to fanless designs
  • Large physical footprint compared to the compact original Macintosh

Cultural Impact

The Macintosh II's influence extended far beyond its commercial success, fundamentally changing perceptions of what a Macintosh could be and establishing patterns that would influence computer design for decades.

Transformation of Creative Industries

The Macintosh II's color capabilities and processing power catalyzed a revolution in creative industries. Desktop publishing, which had begun with the original Macintosh and LaserWriter, evolved into desktop design with the ability to work in color.[43] This transformation affected:

  • Graphic Design: Designers could now create and proof color work entirely on computer, reducing reliance on traditional paste-up methods
  • Photography: Early digital photo editing became practical, presaging the digital photography revolution
  • Video Production: The Macintosh II became a platform for early video editing and effects systems
  • Scientific Visualization: Researchers adopted the platform for data visualization and modeling

Influence on Apple's Direction

The success of the Macintosh II validated the strategy of creating more open, expandable Macintosh computers, influencing Apple's product development through the 1990s. This period saw the development of numerous Macintosh II variants and successors, establishing a product line that would sustain Apple through difficult periods.[44]

The cultural divide between proponents of the original Macintosh philosophy (closed, integrated systems) and the Macintosh II philosophy (open, expandable systems) would continue to influence Apple's internal culture and product decisions for years. This tension would only be fully resolved with Steve Jobs' return to Apple in 1997 and the subsequent simplification of the product line.

Educational and Research Impact

Universities and research institutions rapidly adopted the Macintosh II for its combination of processing power, expandability, and ease of use. The computer became a standard in computer labs and research facilities, introducing a generation of students to graphical computing and multimedia creation.<ref>Cuban, Larry (2001

Technical Analysis

The Macintosh II represented a fundamental architectural departure from previous Macintosh computers, introducing an open architecture design that would define professional Macintosh systems for years to come. Released in March 1987, it was Apple's first modular Macintosh and the first to support color graphics natively.

System Architecture

At the heart of the Macintosh II was the Motorola 68020 processor running at 16 MHz, a significant upgrade from the 68000 used in earlier Macintosh models. The 68020 featured a full 32-bit architecture with 32-bit data and address buses, enabling the system to directly address up to 4 GB of memory—though practical limitations restricted this to 128 MB. The processor included 256 bytes of on-chip instruction cache, improving performance for frequently executed code sequences.

The system utilized a NuBus expansion architecture, featuring six expansion slots that operated at 10 MHz. NuBus was chosen for its auto-configuration capabilities and processor independence, allowing expansion cards to work across different CPU architectures. Each slot provided a 32-bit data path and could support cards drawing up to 25.5 watts of power. The implementation included sophisticated arbitration logic to manage bus access among multiple cards.

Memory Subsystem

The Macintosh II's memory architecture was remarkably advanced for its time. The system used 30-pin SIMM modules in eight slots, organized as two banks of four slots each. Memory access was handled through custom PAL chips that managed timing and refresh cycles. The memory controller supported page-mode access, reducing access time for sequential memory locations within the same page.

The system required SIMMs to be installed in groups of four to maintain the 32-bit data path width. Initial configurations typically included 1 MB (using 256 KB SIMMs) or 2 MB (using 1 MB SIMMs), expandable to 8 MB using the motherboard slots alone. With the addition of memory expansion cards in the NuBus slots, the theoretical maximum reached 128 MB, though System 6 could only address 8 MB, and System 7 was limited to 128 MB.

Graphics Capabilities

Unlike previous Macintosh models with built-in displays, the Macintosh II required a separate graphics card. Apple offered several options, with the most popular being the Apple Display Card 4•8 and the Apple Display Card 8•24. These cards utilized the Apple RAMDAC chip, supporting various color depths and resolutions.

The graphics subsystem supported multiple bit depths: 1-bit (black and white), 2-bit (4 colors), 4-bit (16 colors), and 8-bit (256 colors) modes. The high-end 8•24 card could additionally support 24-bit true color at lower resolutions. Standard resolution was 640×480 pixels, though cards could support up to 1152×870 pixels in monochrome mode. The system's Color QuickDraw routines, stored in ROM, provided sophisticated graphics primitives optimized for the 68020 processor.

Power Supply and Thermal Design

The Macintosh II employed a sophisticated power supply design rated at 230 watts, manufactured by Astec. The supply featured multiple regulated outputs: +5V at 15A, +12V at 4.0A, -12V at 0.25A, and -5V at 0.1A. It included soft-power capabilities, allowing the system to be turned on via the keyboard—an innovative feature at the time.

Thermal management was accomplished through a variable-speed fan system that adjusted based on internal temperature. The horizontal desktop case design promoted natural convection, with cool air entering through front vents and warm air exhausting through the rear. The power supply included its own dedicated cooling, isolated from the main system airflow.

Comparisons

Contemporary Macintosh Systems

When compared to the Macintosh Plus and Macintosh SE available at the same time, the Macintosh II represented a different class of computer entirely. While the Plus and SE maintained the original Macintosh philosophy of a closed, integrated system, the II embraced modularity. The 68020 processor in the II offered approximately 4-5 times the computational performance of the 8 MHz 68000 in the Plus and SE.

The Macintosh IIx, introduced in 1988, was essentially a Macintosh II with the 68020 replaced by a Motorola 68030 running at 16 MHz. While architecturally similar, the IIx offered improved performance through the 68030's integrated MMU and 256-byte data cache in addition to the instruction cache. The IIx also featured a 68882 FPU running at 16 MHz, compared to the optional 16 MHz 68881 in the II.

PC Competition

In the PC world, the Macintosh II competed primarily with Intel 80386-based systems. The Compaq Deskpro 386, introduced several months before the Mac II, offered similar expandability with ISA slots instead of NuBus. However, the Mac II's graphics capabilities significantly exceeded those of contemporary PCs, which were limited to EGA (640×350 in 16 colors) or early VGA (640×480 in 16 colors) standards.

Performance comparisons showed the 16 MHz 68020 roughly matching a 16 MHz 80386 in integer operations, though the optional 68881 FPU gave the Mac II a substantial advantage in floating-point calculations. The Mac II's unified memory architecture also provided advantages over the segmented memory model of DOS-based PCs.

Workstation Market

The Macintosh II also competed with entry-level UNIX workstations from companies like Sun Microsystems and Apollo Computer. The Sun 3/60, using a 20 MHz 68020, offered similar CPU performance but included built-in Ethernet and ran UNIX. However, the Mac II's superior graphics capabilities and more polished user interface made it attractive for design and publishing applications.

Price comparisons were significant: a base Macintosh II system with monitor and graphics card cost approximately $7,000, while comparable Sun workstations started at $10,000 or more. This positioning helped Apple penetrate markets traditionally dominated by workstation vendors.

Legacy

Industry Impact

The Macintosh II's influence on the computer industry extended far beyond its commercial success. It demonstrated that Apple could produce systems for professional markets while maintaining the user-friendly interface that defined the Macintosh. The success of the II series validated the concept of modular Macintosh systems and influenced Apple's product strategy throughout the late 1980s and early 1990s.

The adoption of NuBus, while not achieving widespread industry adoption, influenced the development of future expansion bus standards. Its auto-configuration features presaged the Plug and Play capabilities that would later become standard in the PC industry with PCI. The sophisticated arbitration and fair access mechanisms in NuBus influenced the design of subsequent bus architectures.

Desktop Publishing Revolution

The Macintosh II played a crucial role in the desktop publishing revolution. Its color capabilities, combined with software like Adobe Photoshop (which debuted on the platform) and QuarkXPress, transformed the publishing and graphic design industries. The system's ability to drive large, high-resolution color monitors made it the platform of choice for professional designers and publishers.

The availability of high-quality PostScript printers and imagesetters that could be driven by the Macintosh II created an end-to-end publishing solution

  1. ↑ Carlton, Jim (1997). Apple: The Inside Story of Intrigue, Egomania, and Business Blunders. New York: Random House. ISBN 0-8129-2851-2.
  2. ↑ Moritz, Michael (2009). Return to the Little Kingdom: Steve Jobs and the Creation of Apple. Overlook Press. ISBN 978-1-59020-281-8.
  3. ↑ Kahaner, Larry (1989). On the Line: The Men of MCI Who Took On AT&T, Risked Everything, and Won. Warner Books. ISBN 0-446-51476-2.
  4. ↑ Motorola Inc. (1985). MC68020 32-Bit Microprocessor User's Manual. Prentice Hall. ISBN 0-13-566878-6.
  5. ↑ Apple Computer (1987). Macintosh II Developer Note. Apple Technical Publications.
  6. ↑ Apple Computer (1988). Guide to the Macintosh Family Hardware. Addison-Wesley. ISBN 0-201-19255-1.
  7. ↑ Field, Gary (1987). "Macintosh II: Apple's Open Mac". MacUser. Vol. 3, No. 5. pp. 81-89.
  8. ↑ Texas Instruments (1986). NuBus Specification. IEEE 1196-1987.
  9. ↑ Apple Computer (1987). Macintosh II Video Card Developer Note. Apple Technical Publications.
  10. ↑ Williams, Gregg (1987). "The Apple Macintosh II". BYTE. Vol. 12, No. 4. pp. 84-88.
  11. ↑ Macworld Mac Secrets, IDG Books
    ISBN 1-56884-025-X}
  12. ↑ Motorola's 68020 Microprocessor, IEEE Micro, vol. 4, no. 2, pp. 101-108
  13. ↑ Macintosh II Developer Note, Apple Computer, Inc.}
  14. ↑ Macintosh II Owner's Guide, Apple Computer, Inc.
  15. ↑ The Apple Macintosh Computer}
  16. ↑ Macintosh II: Apple's Open Mac, MacWorld, pp. 122-125, April 1987
  17. ↑ Guide to Macintosh Family Hardware, Addison-Wesley
    ISBN 0-201-52405-8}
  18. ↑ Macintosh II Technical Reference, Apple Computer, Inc.
  19. ↑ The NuBus, Byte, pp. 93-98, October 1986
  20. ↑ The Macintosh Bible, Peachpit Press
    ISBN 0-940235-15-8}
  21. ↑ Macintosh Networking Guide, Apple Computer, Inc.
  22. ↑ Return to the Little Kingdom, Overlook Press
    ISBN 978-1-59020-199-5}
  23. ↑ Macintosh II: The Power User's Dream, MacUser, pp. 84-92, May 1987
  24. ↑ Macintosh: The Missing Manual, O'Reilly Media
    ISBN 1-56592-851-5}
  25. ↑ MultiFinder– Andy Hertzfeld—link(accessed 2023-10-15)
  26. ↑ Macintosh Revealed, Hayden Books
    ISBN 0-672-48402-5}
  27. ↑ Bridging the Gap: Apple File Exchange, MacWorld, August 1987, pp. 145-148
  28. ↑ The Complete HyperCard Handbook, Bantam Books
    ISBN 0-553-34577-5}
  29. ↑ The Color Conundrum, MacUser, pp. 102-108, September 1987
  30. ↑ The Aldus Guide to Basic Design, Aldus Corporation
    ISBN 0-941719-00-5}
  31. ↑ Illustrator 88: Color Comes to PostScript, MacWorld, March 1988, pp. 156-162
  32. ↑ Adobe Photoshop Source Code, Computer History Museum—link(accessed 2023-10-15)
  33. ↑ Carlton, Jim (1997). Apple: The Inside Story of Intrigue, Egomania, and Business Blunders. New York: Random House. ISBN 0-8129-2851-2.
  34. ↑ Moritz, Michael (2009). Return to the Little Kingdom: Steve Jobs and the Creation of Apple. Overlook Press. ISBN 978-1-59020-328-0.
  35. ↑ Hertzfeld, Andy (2004). Revolution in the Valley. O'Reilly Media. ISBN 0-596-00719-1.
  36. ↑ Deutschman, Alan (2001). The Second Coming of Steve Jobs. Broadway Books. ISBN 0-7679-0433-8.
  37. ↑ Linzmayer, Owen W. (2004). Apple Confidential 2.0. No Starch Press. ISBN 1-59327-010-0.
  38. ↑ Malone, Michael S. (1999). Infinite Loop. Currency/Doubleday. ISBN 0-385-48684-7.
  39. ↑ Gassée, Jean-Louis; Rheingold, Howard (1987). "The Evolution of Thinking Tools". The Cognitive Connection. Prentice Hall. ISBN 0-13-139882-8.
  40. ↑ Stross, Randall (1993). Steve Jobs and the NeXT Big Thing. Atheneum. ISBN 0-689-12135-0.
  41. ↑ IDC Quarterly PC Tracker, Q4 1988
  42. ↑ InfoWorld, December 28, 1987, p. 45
  43. ↑ Pfiffner, Pamela (2002). Inside the Publishing Revolution: The Adobe Story. Adobe Press. ISBN 0-321-11564-3.
  44. ↑ Kahney, Leander (2004). The Cult of Mac. No Starch Press. ISBN 1-886411-83-2.
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